WEAPONIZATION OF SOCIAL MEDIA AND NATIONAL SECURITY

The concept of foreign policy is as old as the perception of state’s mutual interaction. States as sovereign actors call for interacting mutually, which results into formation of foreign policy.1 In broader sense, foreign policy can be defined as a government’s strategy for interacting with other states.2 Narrowly, it is the sum of principles, interests, objectives and plan of actions adopted by a state in a complex domestic and international environment to conduct its relations with other states and 

Sajid Karim is Research Officer at Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS). His

e-mail address is sajidkarim87@gmail.com. Mohammad Jasim Uddin, PhD is Senior Research Fellow at
Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS). His e-mail address is jasim_biiss@yahoo.
com. The paper was earlier presented in the seminar titled, "Foreign Policy of Bangladesh: Roadmap for
Realisation of Vision 2041", jointly organised by National Defence College (NDC), Bangladesh, Bangladesh
Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), and Bangladesh Enterprise Institute (BEI) on 13
October 2016. An abridged version of the paper appeared in the proceedings of the seminar published
by NDC.
© Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS), 2016.
1
 Sadia Mushtaq and Ishtiaq Ahmad Choudhry, “Conceptualization of Foreign Policy: An Analytical Analysis”,
Berkley Journal of Social Science, Vol. 3, Spring 2013. 2
 Christopher Hill, The Changing Politics of Foreign Policy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, p. 1. 

non-state actors.3 Foreign policy is thus, the extension of national policy.4 It is shaped by different factors like geography, history, national ideology and capacity, leadership, public opinion, socio-political orientation, geo-political and global environment etc. Expansion of the field of international relations and growing mutual interaction between states with non-state actors and their inalienable interdependence demand expansion of the scope of foreign policy. Hence, contemporary understanding of foreign policy incorporates the role of intergovernmental bodies and transnational organisations along with nation-states into its domain.

Bangladesh has been promoting such a foreign policy that is keen to advocate its national interest and image, economic development and self-ideology. There is no denying that economic compulsions have always been at the forefront in setting the country’s foreign policy priorities. Over the time, the scope of Bangladesh foreign policy has been widened and consequently, several issues have been crucial, e.g., multilateralism and regional cooperation, addressing climate vulnerabilities, combating terrorism and violent extremism, pursuing maritime diplomacy and blue economy, promoting international labour migration and preserving their rights, facilitating regional connectivity, ensuring safe and sustainable energy resources, mobilising international support for debt reduction, market expansion and promotion of trade, and branding Bangladesh as a progressive nation.

As Bangladesh has recently graduated from low-income to a lower-middleincome country and aspires to become an upper middle income country by 2030 and a developed one by 2041, there are a number of emerging challenges facing foreign policy of Bangladesh, ranging from socio-political to economic, environmental and security oriented challenges. The world is in transition and recent years have been witnessing major changes in the contemporary international relations – changes in many ways unprecedented in character – which makes it extremely difficult for countries like Bangladesh to set its foreign policy priorities. The paper limits its scope in analysing the emerging challenges based on several factors and actors of foreign policy making. The factors include soft power diplomacy and image building, trade in goods and services (e.g., manpower export), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Official Development Assistance (ODA), energy, transport connectivity, water and maritime security, climate change and balancing between parties, interests and initiatives.  

This paper examines documents (e.g., existing literature) and interview transcripts. Documentary information helps to collect explicit data and usually comes from a variety of sources, e.g., government documents, academic studies, news clippings and articles sourced from print media, documents from various organisations, etc. On the other hand, this paper adopts semi-structured interview by constructing topic guide and selecting respondents purposively. Moreover, the  

3

 James Rosenau, The Scientific Study of Foreign Policy, New York: The Free Press, 1971, p. 67. 4
 F. S. Northledge, “The Nature of Foreign Policy”, in F. S. Northedge (ed.), The Foreign Policy of the Powers,
London: Faber and Faber, 1968, p. 16.  

paper undertakes interpretive approach, a method of qualitative data analysis. The approach is of two types – thin and thick. To analyse scope of Bangladesh foreign policy and specific emerging challenges, thick interpretation is adopted.

The paper is divided into five sections including introduction and conclusion. First section is introduction. Second section begins with the definitional nittygritty of foreign policy and ends with conceptualisation of emerging challenges for Bangladesh. Third section briefly discusses Bangladesh foreign policy and its scopes, determinants and different important aspects. Fourth section details specific emerging foreign policy challenges of Bangladesh. Fifth section concludes the paper. 

The term foreign policy is defined with varied connotations. C. Hill defined foreign policy as the sum of official external relations conducted by an independent actor (usually a state) in international relations.5 In the words of L. Neack, foreign policy is the intentions, statements and actions of an actor (state) … directed towards the external world.6 It is the plan of action to manage issues that may arise with other states. L. Jensen argued that “foreign policy is a pattern of attitude and behaviour, which a state adopts to interact with the international community”.7 This is substantiated by G. Modelski who defined foreign policy as “the system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environment”.8 Modelski emphasised only those aspects of policy, which aim at the change in the existing behaviour of states, as the primary objectives of foreign policy. On behavioural aspect, Rodee stated that “foreign policy involves the formulation and implementation of a group of principles, which shape the behaviour pattern of a state, while negotiating with other states to protect or further its vital interests”.9 Foreign policy thus includes both the change in the existing behaviour and the continuation of the behaviour at different times. J. Frankel stated that foreign policy “consists of decisions and actions which involve, to a certain extent, relations between one state and others”.10 On a different note, if a state decides not to have any relations with some country, it is also a foreign policy and this was a key argument of F. Gross. 

11

5
 Hill, op. cit. 6
 Laura Neack, Foreign Policy: US and Comparative Foreign Policy in the 21st Century, Oxford: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2003, p. 26.
7
 Lloyd Jensen, Explaining Foreign Policy, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982, p. 14. 8
 George Modelski, A Theory of Foreign Policy, London: Pall Mall Press, 1962, pp. 6-7. 9
 C. C. Rodee, cited in V. N. Khanna, International Relations, India: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 5th Edition,
2013, p. 270.
10 Joseph Frankel, The Making of Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Decision-Making, London: Oxford University Press, 1968. 11 F. Gross, cited in L. S. Srivastava and V. P. Joshi, International Relations: From 1914 to Present Day, Meerut:
GOEL Publishing House, 2005. 

Nation-states and their governments no longer enjoy monopoly of power in controlling their national economies or social developments. The growing impact of globalisation, increased internationalisation of daily life and emergence of free market economy have forced nation-states to broaden the scope of their foreign policies. Thus, foreign policy encompasses state’s relation with non-state actors which include international bodies and transnational organisations. It includes activities such as adhering to international laws and conventions, membership and involvement of multilateral bodies, e.g., the United Nations (UN), alliances and security agreements, trade agreements, supplying foreign aid to developing countries or areas affected by natural disaster, etc. It is a critical area of foreign policy because it shapes state’s relationship, reputation and trade status with its neighbours and beyond. It also affects a nation’s international standing or how it is viewed by the rest of the world.

There is no denying that states formulate foreign policy to secure self-interests inscribed in their domestic policy. Bismarck stated that foreign policy is the extension of domestic policy.12 Emajuddin noted, “conceptually foreign policy is that part of national policy of a state which is related to external environment”.13 Holsti said that “foreign policy is the action towards international environment and the conditions, usually domestic, under which these actions are formulated is concerned essentially with foreign policy”.14 Kissinger argued, “foreign policy begins where domestic policy ends”.15 All these substantiate that domestic policy of a country and its national interests play important role in formulating the country’s foreign policy. The domestic policy is evolved by politico-economic ideology, social structure, national character and partisan/domestic politics of a particular state and the internal factors determine how countries behave toward the world beyond their borders. Thus, examining preferences and configurations of key domestic factors are crucial.16 Importantly, domestic politics dictates how a country will interact with rest of the world, international bodies and transnational organisations and what will be the country’s position while responding to its national security issues against the growing threats of international environment. There is also counter argument that domestic policy cannot totally influence and dictate country’s foreign relations as over the long run a state’s foreign policy cannot transcend the limits and opportunities thrown by global environment.17 In a nutshell, in the words of Chakraborty, foreign policy is a state’s continuous response to pressures in the forms of constrains and incentives emanating   

12 Bismarck, cited in Md. Abdul Halim, “Foreign Policy of Bangladesh: Framework of Analysis”, in Emajuddin

Ahamed (ed.), Foreign Policy of Bangladesh: A Small State’s Imperative, Dhaka: Kamol Kuri Prokashon, 2004,
p. 80.
13 Emajuddin Ahmed, “Introduction”, in Emajuddin Ahmed (ed.), The Foreign Policy of Bangladesh, Dhaka: The
University Press Ltd, 1989, p. vii.
14 K. J Holsti, International Politics: A Framework of Analysis, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1967, p . 21. 15 Henry A. Kissinger, “Domestic Structure and Foreign Policy”, in George S. Masalinant and Gilbert Abcarim
(eds.), International Politics Introductory Readings, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970, p. 155. 16 Gideon Rose, “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy”, World Politics, Vol. 51, No. 1, October
1998, p. 148.
17 Ibid., p. 151 

from international system in order to safeguard its national interests. States are thus, bound to formulate foreign policy for their own survival as these states have to be keen about their calculus of national interests in international relations.18 What play vital role is the international politics and market to shape state’s foreign policies and priorities.19 As a matter of fact, understanding objectives, scopes and compulsions of foreign policy are crucial.

In a broader sense, while the scope of foreign policy can be expressed with three “D’s” (Defence, Diplomacy and Development), upholding national interest is the ultimate objective of foreign policy.20 National interests include, but not limited to, self preservation, safeguarding territorial integrity, national security and identity, economic promotion, social development, image building and augmentation of national prestige. National interests are the factors looming large in diplomatic negotiations at multiple levels. In pursuing national interests, states are at times compelled to consider universal ideals, principles of international law and morality. Constant changes in global environment and the complexity of great power rivalries make things difficult for states to adjust their foreign policy. Here lies orientation and effective utilisation of hard power and soft power diplomacy to deal with intricacies in formulating foreign policy. Hard power helps protect state’s territorial integrity and internal stability, establish dominance in global politics, deter competitors, coerce belligerent states, etc. By contrast, soft power diplomacy usually includes national culture, customs, beliefs, arts, morals, social habits and other capabilities. States deploy cultural diplomacy as an efficient tool of soft power diplomacy to materialise various foreign policy goals.21 States strive for increasing national prestige and image building. Cultural diplomacy helps materialise the two.

Promotion of economic interests is a crucial aspect of national interests. States face the challenges of established and changing international economic architectures. Therefore, national interests have been more economic than political, and foreign policy is ever increasingly being guided by economic factors than by political ones.22 Here lies the essence of economic diplomacy in foreign policy and its upcoming challenges, e.g., negotiating economic and trade agreements, eliminating divergences, harmonising standards in various aspects, etc., at different levels. Two emerging challenges of economic diplomacy are – facing scarcity of energy and   

18 Gobinda Chakraborty, “Foreign Policy: A Theoretical Assessment”, Bangladesh Political Science Review, Vol.

11, No. 1, December 2015, p. 206.
19 Hill, op. cit., p. 14. 20 Nafees Asiya Syed, “The 3 D’s of Foreign Affairs”, Annual Report, Harvard Political Review, 17 September
2010, available at http://harvardpolitics.com/arusa/the-3ds-of-foreign-affairs/, accessed on 10 January
2017; Nathan Finney, “A Culture of Inclusion: Defense, Diplomacy, and Development as a Modern American
Foreign Policy”, Small Wars Journal, 26 September 2010. 21 Hwajung Kim, “Cultural Diplomacy as the Means of Soft Power in an Information Age”, Institute for Cultural
Diplomacy, December 2011, available at http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/case-studies/Hwajung_
Kim_Cultural_Diplomacy_as_the_Means_of_Soft_Power_in_the_Information_Age.pdf, accessed on 15
January 2017.
22 L. S. Srivastava and V. P. Joshi, International Relations: From 1914 to Present Day, op. cit., p. 16. 

reducing barriers in establishing regional connectivity, physical in nature. Scarcity of energy is a serious concern. It is at the core of geopolitics and can be both a source of conflict and cooperation at multiple levels. Therefore, the issue of energy diplomacy comes to the fore and ensuring energy security remains an emerging challenge of foreign policy.23 Another challenging factor that shapes state’s foreign policy is the issue of regional connectivity. How interlinked trade and economic promotion is with regional transport connectivity is practically evident. But the challenges remain with both hard infrastructure (e.g., lack of physical infrastructure) and soft infrastructure (e.g., regulatory constrains, lack of effective institution, mechanism and process). Importantly, negotiating the issue at multi-levels is critical.

From geographical viewpoint, national interest and foreign policy significantly evolve with some vital notions, e.g., water diplomacy, maritime diplomacy and climate diplomacy. Common water resource management or water politics is a key to conflict between/among states and thus, water diplomacy is a challenging aspect of a state’s foreign policy. Deep-sea water incorporating the phenomena of marine resources, maritime security and maritime connectivity is being at the core of geopolitical contention and accordingly, maritime diplomacy and the concept of blue economy24 arise in the parlance of foreign policy.25 Relatively, a new distinct focus of foreign policy is the inflation of extreme climate event, change in environment and its adverse consequences. This calls for multi-stakeholder consultation and mutual cooperation. Here lies the challenges of climate diplomacy, e.g., negotiation on loss and damage, demand of compensation, finding realistic solution, etc.

Comparatively another new phenomenon in politics is the existence of pressure groups. Their techniques, e.g., balancing issue-oriented initiatives26 have enabled them to claim enlarged role in shaping a country’s foreign policy. These groups yield a considerable influence on their respective governments, which the latter cannot always avoid. At times, national government has to negotiate with the  

23 Energy diplomacy refers to any diplomatic activity designed to enhance access to energy resources. For

details, see Marco Giuli, “Getting Energy Diplomacy Right: A Challenge Starting at Home”, European Policy
Centre, 23 October 2015, available at http://epc.eu/pub_details.php?cat_id=4&pub_id=6052, accessed on
06 December 2016.
24 The idea of the “blue economy” was conceived at the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012. Fundamental to this concept is the principle of equity,
ensuring that developing countries optimise the benefits received from development of their marine
environments (e.g., agreements related to fishery, bio-prospecting, oil and mineral extraction); promote
national equity, including gender equality and in particular the generation of inclusive growth and
decent jobs for all; and have their concerns and interests properly reflected in the development of seas
beyond national jurisdictions, including the refinement of international governance mechanisms and their
concerns for states proximate to seabed development. For details, see, “The Blue Economy: Origin and
Concept”, available at https://www.col.org/news/items/blue-economy-origin-and-concept, accessed on 29
April 2017.
25 “Blue Economy: Concept, Elements and Evolution”, IASPOINT: Integrated IAS General Studies by GKToday,
16 April 2016, available at https://academy.gktoday.in/current-affairs/blue-economy-concept-elementsand-evolution/, accessed on 14 December 2016. 26 The ambiguity of addressing energy security not at the cost of creating climate change oriented concerns. 

entities to formulate any policy. Thus, conflict between parties and interests is going to be an emerging challenge of foreign policy. Another contemporary challenge in global politics and in the parlance of foreign policy is the rise of terrorism and violent extremism. There are criticisms against international counterterrorism regime that it lacks globally accepted agreement and multilateral actions involving different stakeholders. Therefore, despite several efforts from countries around the world, global terrorism is growing unabated, creating havoc in different countries, severely disrupting the peace and stability of the world.